Encouraging Reading Habits on diverse perspective of literature
Encouraging adolescent students to love reading is the primary challenge many teachers put at the top of their daily "To Do" list. Teaching adolescents to read and instilling a love of reading is a unique combination of talent, skill, care and determination. Teachers should fully understand of what their students are, how to encourage their reading habits and what they should not do to decrease their motivation in reading.
As children grow to be adolescents, their skills increase, the type of books and how they read will change and develop. Some will read one book at a time; others may have two or three going at once. If it works for those adolescents, it's alright. Some will take a book wherever they go, others may read only in a certain spot at a certain time. Again, they will have some ownership and develop their own reading characteristics.
As they grow, they may see that they are living in differences. Then, they try to find identity to be theirs. It may happen in multicultural education. The realization may impact reading habits. They will not hit books, if they think those books can not represent them any way.
In reading, it is undeniable to comprehend all the book. But, there are some obstacles to make students love their books, and one of them is something who related to region diversity, such as culture, ethnic, and nationality. When they read a book, which they do not have any senses in relation to the book, they will not love it.
However, if those students just set up to see differences of them from others, they will have no respect to see and to adjust the different situations. Then, possible problems will rise; prejudice, racial, and stereotype. Consequently, teachers should know how to decrease prejudice from their classroom. Thus, reading diverse literature includes culturally, ethnically, and nationality can be one way to bridge the gap.
In my experience, the first thing to do by all teachers is selecting literature, which can cover diverse perspective. Fortunately, nowadays, there are many YA novels in print that present both good stories and diverse perspectives. I find that a well-selected piece of YAL embodies the essence of the concept and expresses it in ways that young adult can identify with much more than any single poster, audio-visual aid or mini-lecture those teachers might give.
In classroom, if teachers use literature reflective of the young adult experience from diverse cultural perspectives, actually they can demonstrate to their students that they care of them as individuals or as members of society. So they can ask their students to care of each other.
Furthermore, if teachers have selected YA novels, they can step to let their students find certain books that can represent them. At any rate, actually they need to develop ownership towards their choice. Moreover, independent reading for young adult is a right choice as they grow up. Teachers also need to recognize that forcing students to read texts they do not like, do not trust, or do not value just for the sake of introducing them to diverse culture that may affect their negative attitudes toward members of those cultures. So, let them enjoy their thinking to develop their reading characteristics.
Then, let those students to share their feeling about the novels they have read. Feeling that is shared to all members of classroom, will create the classroom develop tolerating and appreciating diverse value. They will respect each other and more realize to the diversity that surrounds.
It is a good way since from the sharing activity, so many things they can understand. Through reading-sharing activity, however, students can examine various cultures values of such topics as the conception of family, the role of each family member, the view of technology, science, religious view, and political view, moral and philosophical beliefs. Those values actually need understanding by all students. Teachers should make them understand that they can not live alone, do something lonely, but need friends to help them. And they may come from diversity, so the only way can they live is by appreciating and tolerating the diversity. If teachers can manage the multicultural classroom wisely, in my experience, students will have appreciation to each other in cover of diverse perspective.
Monday, November 23, 2009
Sunday, November 1, 2009
The Importance of Teaching Young Adult Literature in EFL Classroom
Heri septiawan
06211210263
Curriculum and Material Development
The Importance of Teaching Young Adult Literature in EFL Classroom
As termed by linguists, language is a means of communication, so language study means study how to communicate by using the language. The sort of communication is that there must be more than one people; one as a sounds maker with his or her mouth (or hand movements in sign language, or pen marks in written language) and the other listening (or watching or reading). Therefore, communication appears in social context. Or it cannot appear in isolation.
In consideration of the language function, language study is not merely study grammar of formal language, but the way to use the language in communicating with others. By doing so, English teaching must not come back to the traditional point of view; that just emphasize the teaching of formal English grammar. However, it should be in relation to the nature of language itself, to communicate. Or it should be based on Communicative competence.
The main concern for EFL teachers is to build communicative competence. The competence is more than acquiring mastery of structure and form. It also involves acquiring the ability to interpret discourse in all its social and cultural contexts. Yet, in my experience, it is obvious that many EFL speakers cannot comprehend the creativity, resourcefulness, and the nature of English itself, even the Standard English. As a result, teaching literature in EFL classroom can be a useful tool to develop their linguistics knowledge of English.
The benefit of connecting this linguistic study to the literature is that students experience how their language works; the language awareness, through an attractive works, not boring and that can only be found in reading. Teaching English through boring works just carry them to the space where their creativity, critical thinking may not appear, and English literature an interesting way to build students’ linguistics knowledge.
In my experience, at least, literature has two benefits; firstly, from the content written within the literature, and secondly, from teachers’ creativity to manage the literature in classroom. The content of literature should project the way of what young adult lives. It may appear from the characteristics which young adult has. On the other word, the literature should be consistent with the needs, interests, developmental stages and intellectual level of the students. The fulfilment of the characteristics will draw young adult closer to interact fully with the chosen book.
When the young adult encounters an interesting book, it will make language study more fun and attractive. A writer may use colourful vocabularies in order to make their readers in a great spirit to read it. Many things can be learned from a book. It usually contains culture, which related to language varieties used in the book. As a result, students will have more language awareness. They will understand that English is not only from one variation, but it has so many varieties. Besides that, their orthographic and phonologic knowledge can be impacted through the study. In short, their linguistic development is really built.
However, the content of the book cannot be responded properly by the students, if the English teacher cannot manage the way to use the literature effectively and creatively in the classroom. If so, it may kill the enthusiasm of students in teaching the language. To overcome the problem, firstly, a teacher should use a wide range of authentic texts to introduce learners to a variety of types and difficulties of English language. Secondly, literary discourse sensitises readers to the processes of reading e.g. the use of schema, strategies for intensive and extensive reading etc. In this way let students give response of what they read; it is to show they understanding and quality of the book. And, lastly, literary texts prioritise the enjoyment of reading. Let them enjoy it and see the book as the way to improve their English.
There are many benefits to using literature in the EFL classroom. It can widen learners’ understanding of their own and other cultures; it can create opportunities for personal expression as well as reinforce learners’ knowledge of lexical and grammatical structure. Moreover, good strategies built by teacher can help students analyse and interpret language in context in order to recognize not only how language is manipulated but also why. the use of literature in the language classroom offers foreign language learners the opportunity to develop not only their linguistic and communicative skills but their knowledge about language in all its discourse types. The use of literary texts in the language classroom can be a potentially powerful pedagogic tool.
06211210263
Curriculum and Material Development
The Importance of Teaching Young Adult Literature in EFL Classroom
As termed by linguists, language is a means of communication, so language study means study how to communicate by using the language. The sort of communication is that there must be more than one people; one as a sounds maker with his or her mouth (or hand movements in sign language, or pen marks in written language) and the other listening (or watching or reading). Therefore, communication appears in social context. Or it cannot appear in isolation.
In consideration of the language function, language study is not merely study grammar of formal language, but the way to use the language in communicating with others. By doing so, English teaching must not come back to the traditional point of view; that just emphasize the teaching of formal English grammar. However, it should be in relation to the nature of language itself, to communicate. Or it should be based on Communicative competence.
The main concern for EFL teachers is to build communicative competence. The competence is more than acquiring mastery of structure and form. It also involves acquiring the ability to interpret discourse in all its social and cultural contexts. Yet, in my experience, it is obvious that many EFL speakers cannot comprehend the creativity, resourcefulness, and the nature of English itself, even the Standard English. As a result, teaching literature in EFL classroom can be a useful tool to develop their linguistics knowledge of English.
The benefit of connecting this linguistic study to the literature is that students experience how their language works; the language awareness, through an attractive works, not boring and that can only be found in reading. Teaching English through boring works just carry them to the space where their creativity, critical thinking may not appear, and English literature an interesting way to build students’ linguistics knowledge.
In my experience, at least, literature has two benefits; firstly, from the content written within the literature, and secondly, from teachers’ creativity to manage the literature in classroom. The content of literature should project the way of what young adult lives. It may appear from the characteristics which young adult has. On the other word, the literature should be consistent with the needs, interests, developmental stages and intellectual level of the students. The fulfilment of the characteristics will draw young adult closer to interact fully with the chosen book.
When the young adult encounters an interesting book, it will make language study more fun and attractive. A writer may use colourful vocabularies in order to make their readers in a great spirit to read it. Many things can be learned from a book. It usually contains culture, which related to language varieties used in the book. As a result, students will have more language awareness. They will understand that English is not only from one variation, but it has so many varieties. Besides that, their orthographic and phonologic knowledge can be impacted through the study. In short, their linguistic development is really built.
However, the content of the book cannot be responded properly by the students, if the English teacher cannot manage the way to use the literature effectively and creatively in the classroom. If so, it may kill the enthusiasm of students in teaching the language. To overcome the problem, firstly, a teacher should use a wide range of authentic texts to introduce learners to a variety of types and difficulties of English language. Secondly, literary discourse sensitises readers to the processes of reading e.g. the use of schema, strategies for intensive and extensive reading etc. In this way let students give response of what they read; it is to show they understanding and quality of the book. And, lastly, literary texts prioritise the enjoyment of reading. Let them enjoy it and see the book as the way to improve their English.
There are many benefits to using literature in the EFL classroom. It can widen learners’ understanding of their own and other cultures; it can create opportunities for personal expression as well as reinforce learners’ knowledge of lexical and grammatical structure. Moreover, good strategies built by teacher can help students analyse and interpret language in context in order to recognize not only how language is manipulated but also why. the use of literature in the language classroom offers foreign language learners the opportunity to develop not only their linguistic and communicative skills but their knowledge about language in all its discourse types. The use of literary texts in the language classroom can be a potentially powerful pedagogic tool.
Monday, October 26, 2009
Between Excretion and Reading/Writing Process
Heri septiawan
06211210263
Between Excretion and Reading/Writing Process
It was a nicest day for me. After doing tiring activities in a sunny day at school, I starved. Fortunately, when I went back to home, my mother had cooked a lot of delicious foods. Those foods really stimulated my great appetite that day. So, I ate a lot until the sweat dropped from my skin. But, unfortunately, just as a natural excretion process; the more you eat, the more you want to make the rest of what you eat out of you. However, that is now enough to make me understand that input and output should be in balance; if not for human they will be sick or hospitalized.
From the brief experience above, perhaps you will have a question mark in your head; so what the relationship between eating a lot, reading and writing process as well. Actually, it is not about biological writing, but I just want to show the relationship between reading and writing process. In my experience, excretion process is similar to the process of writing and reading. In those processes, something that comes into your body will affect its output. In reading/writing process, the more you read, the more you want to write it. From reading process, the readers will get many new things. Those new things will be opened and be connected with readers’ prior knowledge. Later on, the connected knowledge constructs the readers’ understanding. As the understanding rises, the readers have a great desire to share what they have understood with other people. Then they compose the understanding into text and it becomes writing.
Furthermore, as the process of writing and reading develop, the understanding between the readers and writers need to be built. Therefore, they should have understanding in terms of communication. In other words, if reading and writing are to be communicative then the reader needs to read with the sense of the writer and the writer needs to write with the sense of the reader. A reader needs to make sense of what the writer is communicating through the text and the writer need to make sure that his/her message is clear and understood by the reader. Students should make the connection that their friends will be reading their writing, so that they will need to have a better sense of the writer and write better with the sense of the reader.
Basically, the relationship between reading and writing is a bit like that of the chicken and egg. Which came first is not as important as the fact that without one the other cannot exist. Writing affects reading, and reading affects writing. Therefore, teaching writing and reading should not be isolated, but they are integrated processes.
Teaching reading and writing together are very important since this strategy will have more beneficial things in their learning process. Reading a variety of genres helps students learn text structures and language that they can then transfer to their own writing. In addition, reading provides young people with prior knowledge that they can use in their stories. One of the primary reasons that we read is to learn. Especially while we are still in school, a major portion of what we know comes from the texts we read. Since writing is the act of transmitting knowledge in print, we must have information to share before we can write it. Therefore reading plays a major role in writing.
At the same time practice in writing helps students build their reading skills. This is especially true for students who are working to develop phonemic knowledge. In my experience, phonemic knowledge develops as children read and write new words. For young adult practice in the process of writing their own texts helps them analyze the pieces that they read. They can apply their knowledge about the ways that they choose to use particular language, text structure or content to better understand a professional author’s construction of his or her texts.
However, the reading process should be in control; from the chosen book, intellectual level, interests and needs of readers. Once the reading is under control, it is important to help students bridge the gap between reading and writing, a form of free writing. Paraphrasing and summarizing are two important skills that will help your child with academic writing, but it is also important to encourage journal writing. From journal writing, students have more chance to write anything they want to. Later on, summarizing is a better way to comprehend the text of what they have read. They will have more area to show their understanding based on their readings. Revising is another way to show students’ understanding. In this way students should read their friends’ writing, when they have understood the essential things of the writing and if any show the mistakes, the result is they will fully understand of what they have read.
06211210263
Between Excretion and Reading/Writing Process
It was a nicest day for me. After doing tiring activities in a sunny day at school, I starved. Fortunately, when I went back to home, my mother had cooked a lot of delicious foods. Those foods really stimulated my great appetite that day. So, I ate a lot until the sweat dropped from my skin. But, unfortunately, just as a natural excretion process; the more you eat, the more you want to make the rest of what you eat out of you. However, that is now enough to make me understand that input and output should be in balance; if not for human they will be sick or hospitalized.
From the brief experience above, perhaps you will have a question mark in your head; so what the relationship between eating a lot, reading and writing process as well. Actually, it is not about biological writing, but I just want to show the relationship between reading and writing process. In my experience, excretion process is similar to the process of writing and reading. In those processes, something that comes into your body will affect its output. In reading/writing process, the more you read, the more you want to write it. From reading process, the readers will get many new things. Those new things will be opened and be connected with readers’ prior knowledge. Later on, the connected knowledge constructs the readers’ understanding. As the understanding rises, the readers have a great desire to share what they have understood with other people. Then they compose the understanding into text and it becomes writing.
Furthermore, as the process of writing and reading develop, the understanding between the readers and writers need to be built. Therefore, they should have understanding in terms of communication. In other words, if reading and writing are to be communicative then the reader needs to read with the sense of the writer and the writer needs to write with the sense of the reader. A reader needs to make sense of what the writer is communicating through the text and the writer need to make sure that his/her message is clear and understood by the reader. Students should make the connection that their friends will be reading their writing, so that they will need to have a better sense of the writer and write better with the sense of the reader.
Basically, the relationship between reading and writing is a bit like that of the chicken and egg. Which came first is not as important as the fact that without one the other cannot exist. Writing affects reading, and reading affects writing. Therefore, teaching writing and reading should not be isolated, but they are integrated processes.
Teaching reading and writing together are very important since this strategy will have more beneficial things in their learning process. Reading a variety of genres helps students learn text structures and language that they can then transfer to their own writing. In addition, reading provides young people with prior knowledge that they can use in their stories. One of the primary reasons that we read is to learn. Especially while we are still in school, a major portion of what we know comes from the texts we read. Since writing is the act of transmitting knowledge in print, we must have information to share before we can write it. Therefore reading plays a major role in writing.
At the same time practice in writing helps students build their reading skills. This is especially true for students who are working to develop phonemic knowledge. In my experience, phonemic knowledge develops as children read and write new words. For young adult practice in the process of writing their own texts helps them analyze the pieces that they read. They can apply their knowledge about the ways that they choose to use particular language, text structure or content to better understand a professional author’s construction of his or her texts.
However, the reading process should be in control; from the chosen book, intellectual level, interests and needs of readers. Once the reading is under control, it is important to help students bridge the gap between reading and writing, a form of free writing. Paraphrasing and summarizing are two important skills that will help your child with academic writing, but it is also important to encourage journal writing. From journal writing, students have more chance to write anything they want to. Later on, summarizing is a better way to comprehend the text of what they have read. They will have more area to show their understanding based on their readings. Revising is another way to show students’ understanding. In this way students should read their friends’ writing, when they have understood the essential things of the writing and if any show the mistakes, the result is they will fully understand of what they have read.
Tuesday, October 20, 2009
“One book, One student” the Best Arrangement to Teach English Through Literature
Heri septiawan
06211210263
“One book, One student” the Best Arrangement to Teach English Through Literature
In one occasion, my friend and I exchanged reading one book. After the appointed day, we shared it based on own point of view. As a result, the ideas about it were not the same; my friend said it was a boring story, but I judged it a good story. The description above is real. It happens continuously; every time my friend and I read one book and shared it.
The reality shows that reading is a private activity. No one have the same idea about what they read. Even, students in basic level will show the phenomenon; let them to read one text and ask them to answer the questions given, certainly, they will answer with different ideas if they do not cheat!.
As English teachers who want to teach English through literature, understanding the nature of reading is a very important aspect of teaching plan. Reading is a passive activity, where through it students will get ideas or knowledge. As the passive activity, teachers should consider the needs and interests of the students, so that they will enjoy their reading and get more knowledge easily.
Reading interests and difficulty, developmental stages that young people face, and intellectual ability are all considered before suggesting a book to a particular student. Therefore, in my experience, ‘one book, one student’ best suits with me. This organizational reading shall meet the needs and interests of each student. As a result, they will easily judge the book and get ideas of the book, their own books.
In consideration, books are written in line with the level of their readers. One book will be easy to understand by one student but, will be difficult for other students. The understanding skill to read comprehensively one book is related to their intellectual ability, so if one book is given to whole class, students will have no full interaction with the book used. However, it does not mean that teachers will underestimate the lower students but, it is the way to engage the lower students to get their interests in reading. Hopefully, their senses of reading will be built and getting developed time by time they read their own lovely book.
One thing that it shall build classroom as reading laboratory is reading peers or sharing ideas from the read books. If every student reads their own books and they share it together with their friends, so how many books will be discussed in the classroom, there must be a lot of ideas, and experience to be shared. Automatically, it creates the increasing of knowledge and improvement their skills. One should be noted, in middle and high school, as their intellectual and developmental stages are getting better, so their reading will be encouraged as independence reading. They want to read what suits with their interests and needs, if not they will not have senses of reading. In context of teaching English through literature, it is effective way to increase their reading skills based on English.
In conclusion, this approach will have more advantages to build reading skills regarding the interests and needs of students’. The arrangement of this approach will create optimum classroom reading achievement since every student reads what the best for them and they share it. Doing restrictive reading for students just makes them bored to read. There is no sensitivity, interaction and sense to what they read and the predictable result is they will be non reading person just after they finish their study at school. Reading comprehensively means the students can respond the books based on their own point of view. In this way, students will have more responsibility for their reading/literature program. Beside that, teaching English through literature will be effective since students show their interests in reading, consequently, they enjoy reading and follow English program through literature.
06211210263
“One book, One student” the Best Arrangement to Teach English Through Literature
In one occasion, my friend and I exchanged reading one book. After the appointed day, we shared it based on own point of view. As a result, the ideas about it were not the same; my friend said it was a boring story, but I judged it a good story. The description above is real. It happens continuously; every time my friend and I read one book and shared it.
The reality shows that reading is a private activity. No one have the same idea about what they read. Even, students in basic level will show the phenomenon; let them to read one text and ask them to answer the questions given, certainly, they will answer with different ideas if they do not cheat!.
As English teachers who want to teach English through literature, understanding the nature of reading is a very important aspect of teaching plan. Reading is a passive activity, where through it students will get ideas or knowledge. As the passive activity, teachers should consider the needs and interests of the students, so that they will enjoy their reading and get more knowledge easily.
Reading interests and difficulty, developmental stages that young people face, and intellectual ability are all considered before suggesting a book to a particular student. Therefore, in my experience, ‘one book, one student’ best suits with me. This organizational reading shall meet the needs and interests of each student. As a result, they will easily judge the book and get ideas of the book, their own books.
In consideration, books are written in line with the level of their readers. One book will be easy to understand by one student but, will be difficult for other students. The understanding skill to read comprehensively one book is related to their intellectual ability, so if one book is given to whole class, students will have no full interaction with the book used. However, it does not mean that teachers will underestimate the lower students but, it is the way to engage the lower students to get their interests in reading. Hopefully, their senses of reading will be built and getting developed time by time they read their own lovely book.
One thing that it shall build classroom as reading laboratory is reading peers or sharing ideas from the read books. If every student reads their own books and they share it together with their friends, so how many books will be discussed in the classroom, there must be a lot of ideas, and experience to be shared. Automatically, it creates the increasing of knowledge and improvement their skills. One should be noted, in middle and high school, as their intellectual and developmental stages are getting better, so their reading will be encouraged as independence reading. They want to read what suits with their interests and needs, if not they will not have senses of reading. In context of teaching English through literature, it is effective way to increase their reading skills based on English.
In conclusion, this approach will have more advantages to build reading skills regarding the interests and needs of students’. The arrangement of this approach will create optimum classroom reading achievement since every student reads what the best for them and they share it. Doing restrictive reading for students just makes them bored to read. There is no sensitivity, interaction and sense to what they read and the predictable result is they will be non reading person just after they finish their study at school. Reading comprehensively means the students can respond the books based on their own point of view. In this way, students will have more responsibility for their reading/literature program. Beside that, teaching English through literature will be effective since students show their interests in reading, consequently, they enjoy reading and follow English program through literature.
Monday, October 12, 2009
Explanation of the Developmental Tasks by Havighurst and Their Importance to Middle and High school
Heri septiawan
06211210263
Semester 7
Curriculum and Material Development
Explanation of the Developmental Tasks by Havighurst and Their Importance to Middle and High school
Understanding the developmental tasks of adolescence is a such kind of very crucial thing for language teachers, especially for those who want to engage their students as the life long readers. If students are asked to read literature that is not consistent with their developmental tasks, they will not be able to interact fully with that literature. As a result, they just read in school since they are forced to do that, not as life long readers who read because they love it. Consequently, the result of the teaching is just like selling ice to the Eskimos.
Havighurst outlines lifetime developmental tasks for healthy individuals that include a series of tasks that confront adolescents. The first task is achieving new and more mature relations with age-mates of both sexes. Mature relationships are here viewed as adult relationships; girls are looked upon as women and boys as men. They are interested in relation to the opposite sex in social activities and social experimentation. In this case, school is the main place where the socialization takes place. Approved to be peer of the both sexes is a powerful influence on the behavior of adolescents. In addition, failing or delaying this developmental task will affect their social adjustment and other developmental tasks.
The second developmental task is achieving a proper masculine of feminine social role. In this task, the main point is to be accepted in adult social role. The task of achieving manhood or womanhood is complicated by the contemporary ferment over social roles, the erosion of traditional models, and lack of clarity for replacements.
Accepting one's physique and using body effectively is the third developmental task. Adolescence period is the time of change. As the adolescents grow up, their bodies will also change. In this period, they will learn what their bodies will be. But, not all bodies are shaped or function as what they desire. Havighurst define a task that will be pride or tolerance of one’s body and the ability to use and protect the body satisfactorily. There are at least two components to teenage anxiety regarding physical growth. First is the concern about developing into a satisfactory adult body. The second and more immediate adolescent crises regarding physical growth has to do with the timing of physical changes, particularly the development of adult sexual characteristics. They will have question in their time of change, am I normal? It is asked by the adolescents as they compare their bodies change with the peers,
The fourth developmental task is achieving emotional independence from parents and other adults. The parents want them to become mature adults, but they also want to protect their children. On the other hand, the children have achieved emotional independence form parents and other adults. They want to leave the security of childhood for the adulthood world. The result of the opposite condition is miscommunication, rebellion, authoritarian behaviors and irresponsibility; they may say “whatever!” “I don’t care with the rules, it’s me who determine myself!”. In this case, Teachers have to understand the conflicts so that they can avoid being drawn into misplaced hostility and confrontation.
The fifth task is preparation for marriage and family. The strong attraction with the opposite sex, in period of adolescence need developing, it comes from their willing to have relationship with the opposite sex and establishing independence from parents. They will have understanding that family and marriage is two important things for the adolescents.
The sixth developmental task is preparing for an economic career. One thing which is primary from childhood to adulthood is achieving economic independence and the ability to make a living, as well as choosing a satisfying occupation. They try to think how to earn money and sustain their lives since they are not longer as children.
Acquiring a set of values and an ethical system as a guide is the seventh task of Havighurst’s. This task reflects that adolescents start to have interesting in world views, religions, and ideas of life, political stances and philosophical problems. They are no longer a passive thinker but, one who can see universal truths. Therefore, they need to make choices that reflect their values and ideals. And it is later their principles to lead their lives.
The final developmental task is satisfactorily achieving social responsibility. This task involves discovering one’s role in social lives; to be citizen, members of community and so on. Adolescents discover that what they do will potentially affect the social groups where they live beyond their own families.
To consider the seventh developmental tasks outlined by Havighurst is a crucial point. Teachers should be aware of the tasks, especially, for middle and high school students. In the middle school, students have opportunity to relate their experience to and respond to what they read. The real experience is the basis to build their responses on what they read. They have tried to associate the real experience with their readings. They can share knowledge, discuss and do more with their readings.
In high school, adolescents are able to reason at the formal operational level. In general, these students have reached intellectual maturity, and most are able to think in a systematic manner. If then, teachers consider the all developmental tasks, so it will be more interesting for the students to study literature at school. Even more, they will be long life readers, because they think literature is consistent with their interests and needs as shown in developmental tasks by Havighurst.
06211210263
Semester 7
Curriculum and Material Development
Explanation of the Developmental Tasks by Havighurst and Their Importance to Middle and High school
Understanding the developmental tasks of adolescence is a such kind of very crucial thing for language teachers, especially for those who want to engage their students as the life long readers. If students are asked to read literature that is not consistent with their developmental tasks, they will not be able to interact fully with that literature. As a result, they just read in school since they are forced to do that, not as life long readers who read because they love it. Consequently, the result of the teaching is just like selling ice to the Eskimos.
Havighurst outlines lifetime developmental tasks for healthy individuals that include a series of tasks that confront adolescents. The first task is achieving new and more mature relations with age-mates of both sexes. Mature relationships are here viewed as adult relationships; girls are looked upon as women and boys as men. They are interested in relation to the opposite sex in social activities and social experimentation. In this case, school is the main place where the socialization takes place. Approved to be peer of the both sexes is a powerful influence on the behavior of adolescents. In addition, failing or delaying this developmental task will affect their social adjustment and other developmental tasks.
The second developmental task is achieving a proper masculine of feminine social role. In this task, the main point is to be accepted in adult social role. The task of achieving manhood or womanhood is complicated by the contemporary ferment over social roles, the erosion of traditional models, and lack of clarity for replacements.
Accepting one's physique and using body effectively is the third developmental task. Adolescence period is the time of change. As the adolescents grow up, their bodies will also change. In this period, they will learn what their bodies will be. But, not all bodies are shaped or function as what they desire. Havighurst define a task that will be pride or tolerance of one’s body and the ability to use and protect the body satisfactorily. There are at least two components to teenage anxiety regarding physical growth. First is the concern about developing into a satisfactory adult body. The second and more immediate adolescent crises regarding physical growth has to do with the timing of physical changes, particularly the development of adult sexual characteristics. They will have question in their time of change, am I normal? It is asked by the adolescents as they compare their bodies change with the peers,
The fourth developmental task is achieving emotional independence from parents and other adults. The parents want them to become mature adults, but they also want to protect their children. On the other hand, the children have achieved emotional independence form parents and other adults. They want to leave the security of childhood for the adulthood world. The result of the opposite condition is miscommunication, rebellion, authoritarian behaviors and irresponsibility; they may say “whatever!” “I don’t care with the rules, it’s me who determine myself!”. In this case, Teachers have to understand the conflicts so that they can avoid being drawn into misplaced hostility and confrontation.
The fifth task is preparation for marriage and family. The strong attraction with the opposite sex, in period of adolescence need developing, it comes from their willing to have relationship with the opposite sex and establishing independence from parents. They will have understanding that family and marriage is two important things for the adolescents.
The sixth developmental task is preparing for an economic career. One thing which is primary from childhood to adulthood is achieving economic independence and the ability to make a living, as well as choosing a satisfying occupation. They try to think how to earn money and sustain their lives since they are not longer as children.
Acquiring a set of values and an ethical system as a guide is the seventh task of Havighurst’s. This task reflects that adolescents start to have interesting in world views, religions, and ideas of life, political stances and philosophical problems. They are no longer a passive thinker but, one who can see universal truths. Therefore, they need to make choices that reflect their values and ideals. And it is later their principles to lead their lives.
The final developmental task is satisfactorily achieving social responsibility. This task involves discovering one’s role in social lives; to be citizen, members of community and so on. Adolescents discover that what they do will potentially affect the social groups where they live beyond their own families.
To consider the seventh developmental tasks outlined by Havighurst is a crucial point. Teachers should be aware of the tasks, especially, for middle and high school students. In the middle school, students have opportunity to relate their experience to and respond to what they read. The real experience is the basis to build their responses on what they read. They have tried to associate the real experience with their readings. They can share knowledge, discuss and do more with their readings.
In high school, adolescents are able to reason at the formal operational level. In general, these students have reached intellectual maturity, and most are able to think in a systematic manner. If then, teachers consider the all developmental tasks, so it will be more interesting for the students to study literature at school. Even more, they will be long life readers, because they think literature is consistent with their interests and needs as shown in developmental tasks by Havighurst.
Saturday, October 3, 2009
Effects of TV Programs on Children Behavior
Effect of TV Programs on Children Behavior
In my experience, when I visit villages I will notice that many villagers now have own television set. Proudly, they place it in a living room. As villagers, they bought TV set for home entertainment, so it is normal if they mostly enjoy films, quiz, magic show, humor, sports and even advertisement. It is unusual for villagers to be newspaper subscriber, because they almost never think of politic, economy, social affairs, etc.
Since TV reaches villages, it becomes the only effective medium to transfer science and technology to all people whoever they are. It must be used in such a way that students, scientist, politicians, farmers and so on can get any information broadcasted.
The development of technology is useful to the development of science and vise versa. The development of science and technology is very much useful to the effectiveness of human activity. For instance, Television, by using television, people can see information from a distance. News reported from the London will reach Jakarta or even around the world. Now distance is not a problem any longer. That is why something happened in one place will soon spread without any interference. The world border lines have been wiped out.
Unfortunately, the success of Television brings negative effect to people. Children stay in front of TV for hours. Indubitably, if they are always busy with TV and its programs they will be lazy, introvert, not be able to communicate with brothers, and not be creative. Watching sadistic films, indirectly, their emotion and character will be badly driven. Physically, their eyes will be irritated, too.
Viewing TV shows where violent behavior is punished my inhibit feelings of aggression to a greater degree for human. Television has become a potent agency of socialization because like the family, school, and peers, it directly provides the child with experiences which shape their attitudes and influence their behaviors. In evaluating television's influence on children, it is important to view this medium as an element in a matrix of influences in a child's social environment.
Television seems to become a growing source of parental anxiety. Parents worry most of all about the amount and kinds of programs their children watch, and definitely these fears are legitimate. According to the American Psychological Association Task Force Report on Television and American Society, by the time the average American child (one who watches two to four hours of television daily), leaves elementary school, he or she will have witnessed at least 8,000 murders and more than 100,000 other assorted acts of violence on television.
Unlike books, television programs are easily accessible to children. In a book culture, parents exercise control over the flow of information by selecting the type of books according to the child's reading readiness. Television presents the same information to adults and to children of all ages; and so parents often find it difficult to censor their children's viewing without censoring their own.
Their difficulty stems from their inability to differentiate what is essential to the plot and what is peripheral. Character actions, especially those showing physical actions and confrontations, are remembered better than scenes offering explanations for their actions. Children find it hard to recall scenes recounting inner feelings that explain previous events.
Young children also have a hard time distinguishing make-believe from reality. A five-year-old child wondered why an actor who "died" in one TV programs "came back to life" in another show; and if Superman can fly, why can't he (the child) even if he wears a Superman cape. Children observe that cartoon characters manage to recover from severe violent acts almost immediately. This kind of exposure could lead them to interpret that in real life, people who are victims of violent acts do not really get hurt at all.
So what parents can do to stop it, Parents should watch at least one episode of Programs their child watches to know how violent they are. When viewing together, they can discuss how the conflict could have been solved without the violence. They should explain to the child how violence in entertainment is "faked" and not real. Such interventions, whether at the personal or family level can moderate the impact of scenes on children. Adult explanation improves children's understanding of plots, characters, and events. Co-viewing with children can provide occasions for parents to discuss values, beliefs, and moral issues. Parents should also set clear guidelines on the time and length of television viewing.
Parents can also encourage their children to find pleasure in other mass media, such as books and newspapers. They can select books that highlight the themes in programs that children have viewed on television and discuss with them what was the same and what was different, as well as their feelings and preferences about characters and scenes, and the way they are presented in both media forms. At the school level, the inclusion of media literacy courses in school systems can be very effective. Children can be taught to be more discriminating viewers and can be helped to understand the influence and the effects of television and other media. Teachers should point out that real violence actually hurts, has negative consequences, and that there are other ways than violence to solve real-life problems.
In my experience, when I visit villages I will notice that many villagers now have own television set. Proudly, they place it in a living room. As villagers, they bought TV set for home entertainment, so it is normal if they mostly enjoy films, quiz, magic show, humor, sports and even advertisement. It is unusual for villagers to be newspaper subscriber, because they almost never think of politic, economy, social affairs, etc.
Since TV reaches villages, it becomes the only effective medium to transfer science and technology to all people whoever they are. It must be used in such a way that students, scientist, politicians, farmers and so on can get any information broadcasted.
The development of technology is useful to the development of science and vise versa. The development of science and technology is very much useful to the effectiveness of human activity. For instance, Television, by using television, people can see information from a distance. News reported from the London will reach Jakarta or even around the world. Now distance is not a problem any longer. That is why something happened in one place will soon spread without any interference. The world border lines have been wiped out.
Unfortunately, the success of Television brings negative effect to people. Children stay in front of TV for hours. Indubitably, if they are always busy with TV and its programs they will be lazy, introvert, not be able to communicate with brothers, and not be creative. Watching sadistic films, indirectly, their emotion and character will be badly driven. Physically, their eyes will be irritated, too.
Viewing TV shows where violent behavior is punished my inhibit feelings of aggression to a greater degree for human. Television has become a potent agency of socialization because like the family, school, and peers, it directly provides the child with experiences which shape their attitudes and influence their behaviors. In evaluating television's influence on children, it is important to view this medium as an element in a matrix of influences in a child's social environment.
Television seems to become a growing source of parental anxiety. Parents worry most of all about the amount and kinds of programs their children watch, and definitely these fears are legitimate. According to the American Psychological Association Task Force Report on Television and American Society, by the time the average American child (one who watches two to four hours of television daily), leaves elementary school, he or she will have witnessed at least 8,000 murders and more than 100,000 other assorted acts of violence on television.
Unlike books, television programs are easily accessible to children. In a book culture, parents exercise control over the flow of information by selecting the type of books according to the child's reading readiness. Television presents the same information to adults and to children of all ages; and so parents often find it difficult to censor their children's viewing without censoring their own.
Their difficulty stems from their inability to differentiate what is essential to the plot and what is peripheral. Character actions, especially those showing physical actions and confrontations, are remembered better than scenes offering explanations for their actions. Children find it hard to recall scenes recounting inner feelings that explain previous events.
Young children also have a hard time distinguishing make-believe from reality. A five-year-old child wondered why an actor who "died" in one TV programs "came back to life" in another show; and if Superman can fly, why can't he (the child) even if he wears a Superman cape. Children observe that cartoon characters manage to recover from severe violent acts almost immediately. This kind of exposure could lead them to interpret that in real life, people who are victims of violent acts do not really get hurt at all.
So what parents can do to stop it, Parents should watch at least one episode of Programs their child watches to know how violent they are. When viewing together, they can discuss how the conflict could have been solved without the violence. They should explain to the child how violence in entertainment is "faked" and not real. Such interventions, whether at the personal or family level can moderate the impact of scenes on children. Adult explanation improves children's understanding of plots, characters, and events. Co-viewing with children can provide occasions for parents to discuss values, beliefs, and moral issues. Parents should also set clear guidelines on the time and length of television viewing.
Parents can also encourage their children to find pleasure in other mass media, such as books and newspapers. They can select books that highlight the themes in programs that children have viewed on television and discuss with them what was the same and what was different, as well as their feelings and preferences about characters and scenes, and the way they are presented in both media forms. At the school level, the inclusion of media literacy courses in school systems can be very effective. Children can be taught to be more discriminating viewers and can be helped to understand the influence and the effects of television and other media. Teachers should point out that real violence actually hurts, has negative consequences, and that there are other ways than violence to solve real-life problems.
Thursday, September 24, 2009
Saturday, September 19, 2009
Avoiding prejudice to live in beautiful world
Avoiding prejudice to live in beautiful world
Mankind can not be separated from differences. Differences are something given by God. Mankind is different in many aspects of the life, physically, environmentally or culturally. Those are absolutely His decision. No body can change or argue His decision. May be it would be funny if mankind could argue His decision before He sent us to the world. If it could be done, perhaps I would ask to the God to be born as what I want; to be a white people, to be a rich child or to be a very good child. But, it is impossible since it is The God’s power. Mankind can not argue it although a little. Consequently, willing or not, mankind can not go out of the differences.
Understanding it, in my experience, I need to consider it wisely as something natural in my life. But, then, to be accordance in development time, some people can not hold the concept any longer. They think differences can not be accepted. They try to make barriers between them and other different people. They separate people racially, environmentally, or nationally. Then they start to give bad names to the others different people. And prejudice come and occupy their mind.
Mind is people control. It has greatest function to control our attitudes or behaviors. As a result, prejudice becomes a phenomenon in one society. It suggests that prejudice it a root of bias and conflict in society. In my experience, if we want to grapple with the phenomenon of prejudice, we need a better understanding of its causes.
What are the causes of prejudice? I am going to begin revealing the causes by noticing that humans are creatures of habit. But it is not a restricted habit to things like cheating- a bad habit, or reading is a good habit. Rather, habits in my experience include all our ways of thinking, of feeling, of talking, they are all thinking elements. or it can be regarded that habits is how people act by using his thinking.
Humans come to the world without habits, then their thinking develops and they have the impulses and powers-yet to be realized, to contemplate, to speak and all the rest. As they grow, they develop their “character” and an array of competences, beliefs and orientations, the particular dispositions or tendencies which define not only their “personality” but also their particular ways of thinking, and so on. Put in other terms, all humans have the innate capacities to think, speak and all the rest of the things that humans everywhere do. But the way that they do these things are different. Their concrete expression in the world brings them in social learning process; about life, human and the nature around them. If their thinking is occupied with the wrong ideas, it will affect them to have wrong perspectives to see the world. Thus, people will have different habits.
We play critical roles in the development of our habits and can always do something about them, most of our habits are pretty mush formed by the time we are young adults. Some ways of thinking, felling, etc, are so widely shared by humans, past and present, which we tend to think of them as “universals” prejudice is one of these.
People will have the instinctive aversion of mankind to what is new and unusual, to whatever is different from that we are used to, and which thus shocks our customary habits. This might range from the aversion one might experience to a strange cultural practice to an aversion to what is perceived as “ugly” to an aversion to persons of different skin color.
More facts about prejudice are when the community is so crowded and occupied by unemployment, there will be prejudice among the people from different background in the community. For example, when the native residents are so difficult to get jobs in their own area, whereas the non-natives are so easy to get the jobs, it can be a cause of prejudice, may be the natives will say “how can they the jobs, while we are here still jobless”. As a result, battle between ethnics begins and damages everything. It is a dangerous condition.
May be as humans, we are so difficult to realize that prejudice is on our mind, but rethinking will help us to consider it. However, people need to stop it. In my experience, I can get to know a person on an individual basis before I decide if I do not like them. I am not going to like everyone, but I do need to respect them as an individual and spend time with them before I make a judgment. I need to realize that my way is not the only way. I really need to be respectful of differences.
Considering that prejudice is a very dangerous attitude, I need to stop them from the basic, from my generation. For example, as a teacher, I will teach them that differences are natural, we do not live in uniform and the differences make our worlds more colorful. I will remain them the old saying “don’t judge the book by its cover”. Later, I ask the children to stop and think what it might feel like to be someone who stands our as being different; “ what would it feel like to be the only blacks in a classroom full of white children” or “what does it feel like to be a child of different race”. But the most important ways I can help my student or children in our neighborhood is by being good role models. This, more than anything else we do, will affect the way my student approach diversity. So, avoid using stereotypes.
Mankind can not be separated from differences. Differences are something given by God. Mankind is different in many aspects of the life, physically, environmentally or culturally. Those are absolutely His decision. No body can change or argue His decision. May be it would be funny if mankind could argue His decision before He sent us to the world. If it could be done, perhaps I would ask to the God to be born as what I want; to be a white people, to be a rich child or to be a very good child. But, it is impossible since it is The God’s power. Mankind can not argue it although a little. Consequently, willing or not, mankind can not go out of the differences.
Understanding it, in my experience, I need to consider it wisely as something natural in my life. But, then, to be accordance in development time, some people can not hold the concept any longer. They think differences can not be accepted. They try to make barriers between them and other different people. They separate people racially, environmentally, or nationally. Then they start to give bad names to the others different people. And prejudice come and occupy their mind.
Mind is people control. It has greatest function to control our attitudes or behaviors. As a result, prejudice becomes a phenomenon in one society. It suggests that prejudice it a root of bias and conflict in society. In my experience, if we want to grapple with the phenomenon of prejudice, we need a better understanding of its causes.
What are the causes of prejudice? I am going to begin revealing the causes by noticing that humans are creatures of habit. But it is not a restricted habit to things like cheating- a bad habit, or reading is a good habit. Rather, habits in my experience include all our ways of thinking, of feeling, of talking, they are all thinking elements. or it can be regarded that habits is how people act by using his thinking.
Humans come to the world without habits, then their thinking develops and they have the impulses and powers-yet to be realized, to contemplate, to speak and all the rest. As they grow, they develop their “character” and an array of competences, beliefs and orientations, the particular dispositions or tendencies which define not only their “personality” but also their particular ways of thinking, and so on. Put in other terms, all humans have the innate capacities to think, speak and all the rest of the things that humans everywhere do. But the way that they do these things are different. Their concrete expression in the world brings them in social learning process; about life, human and the nature around them. If their thinking is occupied with the wrong ideas, it will affect them to have wrong perspectives to see the world. Thus, people will have different habits.
We play critical roles in the development of our habits and can always do something about them, most of our habits are pretty mush formed by the time we are young adults. Some ways of thinking, felling, etc, are so widely shared by humans, past and present, which we tend to think of them as “universals” prejudice is one of these.
People will have the instinctive aversion of mankind to what is new and unusual, to whatever is different from that we are used to, and which thus shocks our customary habits. This might range from the aversion one might experience to a strange cultural practice to an aversion to what is perceived as “ugly” to an aversion to persons of different skin color.
More facts about prejudice are when the community is so crowded and occupied by unemployment, there will be prejudice among the people from different background in the community. For example, when the native residents are so difficult to get jobs in their own area, whereas the non-natives are so easy to get the jobs, it can be a cause of prejudice, may be the natives will say “how can they the jobs, while we are here still jobless”. As a result, battle between ethnics begins and damages everything. It is a dangerous condition.
May be as humans, we are so difficult to realize that prejudice is on our mind, but rethinking will help us to consider it. However, people need to stop it. In my experience, I can get to know a person on an individual basis before I decide if I do not like them. I am not going to like everyone, but I do need to respect them as an individual and spend time with them before I make a judgment. I need to realize that my way is not the only way. I really need to be respectful of differences.
Considering that prejudice is a very dangerous attitude, I need to stop them from the basic, from my generation. For example, as a teacher, I will teach them that differences are natural, we do not live in uniform and the differences make our worlds more colorful. I will remain them the old saying “don’t judge the book by its cover”. Later, I ask the children to stop and think what it might feel like to be someone who stands our as being different; “ what would it feel like to be the only blacks in a classroom full of white children” or “what does it feel like to be a child of different race”. But the most important ways I can help my student or children in our neighborhood is by being good role models. This, more than anything else we do, will affect the way my student approach diversity. So, avoid using stereotypes.
A Reflection of Sarah, Plain and Tall
Title : Sarah, Plain and Tall
Author : Patricia MacLachlan
Publisher : Harper Trophy
City : New York
Year : 1987
Pages : 56
A Reflection to Sarah, Plain and Tall
Summary:
Jacob witting is a widower farmer with two children, Caleb and Anna. Since his wife passed away after giving birth Caleb several years earlier, he must handle his farm and the two children alone. Moreover, Caleb and Anna feel loneliness without mother who always take care them. So Mr. Jacob decides to write a letter to the newspaper to get a wife. Sarah, from Maine answers the letter and takes a trip to become his wife. But Sarah feels homesick. She always remembers the Maine sea shore which prairie grass can not substitute it. When she rides the wagon to the town alone, the kids wonder if she would come back. And she did. The kids love her so much. In the end, Sarah and Jacob get married. And they lead good life together.
Comment:
It is a very interesting book, especially for those who love family atmosphere. The story in this novel is simple, but it can express many things in family life. After reading this novel I can feel more about family life; the respect, love, strengthening each other, help, and understanding each other are really family values which are revealed in this novel. All the characters which are played in this novel are very interesting. There is Jacob witting, a tough man who should take responsibility to take care his children and field alone without his wife. There is Anna, a very good sister who should act as sister and daughter. She must help her father after her mother died. There is Caleb, young boy who always care to his family. He can bring fun atmosphere to the family. There is also Sarah, a woman who is ready to leave his memory in Maine and live with witting’s family as a wife and mother. The all characters can make the story reflects truly family atmosphere. The family atmosphere makes this novel suitable for all ages. Even as a teacher, we can teach our students by using this novel. We can teach about the characters, cultural understanding, tools and dress which already existed that time, and also family values. And if the novel has already been studied by the students we can make a drama based on the story. It will be fun.
Experience:
The story reminds me about my friend’s story. He has the only one young sister. He and his sister lived with his father. His mother had passed away. Shortly, his father wanted to get married again. He felt so lonely without a wife next to him. Then his father married a woman he liked and brought to his house. But my friend and his sister could not accept her to be his step mother, so he did evil things in order to make his step mother feel sad. But, then, he realized that his step mother was very good and care about him and his sister, so they changed their attitudes to his step. They became more respect to their step mother until present time. And they have a good family life. I can compare cultural sides from the both stories; the novel story and my friend’s story.. There is cultural difference between the stories. From the novel we can see there is no refusal to step mother, but my friend’s story shows that step mother is always regarded as bad person and refusal is a must to the step mother.
Author : Patricia MacLachlan
Publisher : Harper Trophy
City : New York
Year : 1987
Pages : 56
A Reflection to Sarah, Plain and Tall
Summary:
Jacob witting is a widower farmer with two children, Caleb and Anna. Since his wife passed away after giving birth Caleb several years earlier, he must handle his farm and the two children alone. Moreover, Caleb and Anna feel loneliness without mother who always take care them. So Mr. Jacob decides to write a letter to the newspaper to get a wife. Sarah, from Maine answers the letter and takes a trip to become his wife. But Sarah feels homesick. She always remembers the Maine sea shore which prairie grass can not substitute it. When she rides the wagon to the town alone, the kids wonder if she would come back. And she did. The kids love her so much. In the end, Sarah and Jacob get married. And they lead good life together.
Comment:
It is a very interesting book, especially for those who love family atmosphere. The story in this novel is simple, but it can express many things in family life. After reading this novel I can feel more about family life; the respect, love, strengthening each other, help, and understanding each other are really family values which are revealed in this novel. All the characters which are played in this novel are very interesting. There is Jacob witting, a tough man who should take responsibility to take care his children and field alone without his wife. There is Anna, a very good sister who should act as sister and daughter. She must help her father after her mother died. There is Caleb, young boy who always care to his family. He can bring fun atmosphere to the family. There is also Sarah, a woman who is ready to leave his memory in Maine and live with witting’s family as a wife and mother. The all characters can make the story reflects truly family atmosphere. The family atmosphere makes this novel suitable for all ages. Even as a teacher, we can teach our students by using this novel. We can teach about the characters, cultural understanding, tools and dress which already existed that time, and also family values. And if the novel has already been studied by the students we can make a drama based on the story. It will be fun.
Experience:
The story reminds me about my friend’s story. He has the only one young sister. He and his sister lived with his father. His mother had passed away. Shortly, his father wanted to get married again. He felt so lonely without a wife next to him. Then his father married a woman he liked and brought to his house. But my friend and his sister could not accept her to be his step mother, so he did evil things in order to make his step mother feel sad. But, then, he realized that his step mother was very good and care about him and his sister, so they changed their attitudes to his step. They became more respect to their step mother until present time. And they have a good family life. I can compare cultural sides from the both stories; the novel story and my friend’s story.. There is cultural difference between the stories. From the novel we can see there is no refusal to step mother, but my friend’s story shows that step mother is always regarded as bad person and refusal is a must to the step mother.
Friday, June 19, 2009
DATING In ISLAM
DATING
Dating between men and women is the topic featured in yahoo. This topic was updated in May 7, 2009. In western society, dating can be considered as the common thing happened in women and men relationship. In dating, people may go to somewhere and do what they like to do; having candle light dinner, giving gift to their couple etc. They do it as the symbol of love they said. Even it is often the relationship be more intimate than just having candle light dinner or giving gift to their couple.
The culture of western society may give chance people to do what they want as long as it does not disturb other people business. Dating until the intimate affair is the common thing for the society. Yet, it does not exist only in western society, but Indonesia society also familiar with the “dating” now, although the popular name is “pacaran”. However, as a moslem, I need to explain that in Islam, the relationship among men and women is ruled by the Islamic law, which is exist in the qur'an and sunnah.
"Dating" as it is currently practiced in much of the world shall not exist among Muslims, where a man and a woman (or boy/girl) are in a one-on-one intimate relationship, spending time together alone, getting to know each other in a very deep way. A man and a woman are not allowed to be alone together, and any physical contact before marriage is forbidden. Hence, Dating is not permitted in Islam. Allah has prohibited girl/boyfriend intimate relationships before marriage. If a Muslim man has the desire and willingness to assume marital responsibilities, and he does not have anyone in mind, he might ask his friends, family, and relatives if there is a lady that might be suitable for him among their acquaintances and relatives, and then the couple can meet with their family members. as a result, many marriages in the Muslim world were traditionally arranged marriages, though this is not a religious requirement. However, both couples can not be forced to accept an arranged marriage and if a man likes someone (with the intention of marriage) that he knows from work, neighborhood or acquaintances, etc, he shall propose to her. Islam also encourages Muslims to marry persons for whom they have special feelings and are comfortable with. Thus, Islam recommends that potential marriage partners see one another before proposing marriage. Explaining the reason for such a recommendation, Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) said: That would enhance/foster the bonding. However the prospective couple shall not meet in private, this might lead to extremely unwanted situations, as Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) said : Whenever a man is alone with a woman, Satan is the third among them? (Reported by At-Tirmidhi). At all times, Muslims should follow the commands of the Qur'an "Tell the believing men to lower their gaze (from looking at forbidden things), and protect their private parts (from illegal sexual acts, etc.). That is pure for them. “Dating” or “pacaran” is not allowed in Islam, because Islam wants its followers to keep their honor before marriage. People is not the same with animal which having sex as they see male or female animals. The reality shows us that the dating activity leads men and women to the forbidden activity, like fornication. "In conclusion, Islam lays its social structure on the basis of a permanent relationship between a man and a woman in the form of a family. Consequently, to preserve this marital relationship, it forbids all forms of temporary relationships between a man and a woman. Pre-marital relationships in Islam are not considered respectful for neither the man nor the woman, nor is it constructive for the concept or the building the family or the Islamic society.
Dating between men and women is the topic featured in yahoo. This topic was updated in May 7, 2009. In western society, dating can be considered as the common thing happened in women and men relationship. In dating, people may go to somewhere and do what they like to do; having candle light dinner, giving gift to their couple etc. They do it as the symbol of love they said. Even it is often the relationship be more intimate than just having candle light dinner or giving gift to their couple.
The culture of western society may give chance people to do what they want as long as it does not disturb other people business. Dating until the intimate affair is the common thing for the society. Yet, it does not exist only in western society, but Indonesia society also familiar with the “dating” now, although the popular name is “pacaran”. However, as a moslem, I need to explain that in Islam, the relationship among men and women is ruled by the Islamic law, which is exist in the qur'an and sunnah.
"Dating" as it is currently practiced in much of the world shall not exist among Muslims, where a man and a woman (or boy/girl) are in a one-on-one intimate relationship, spending time together alone, getting to know each other in a very deep way. A man and a woman are not allowed to be alone together, and any physical contact before marriage is forbidden. Hence, Dating is not permitted in Islam. Allah has prohibited girl/boyfriend intimate relationships before marriage. If a Muslim man has the desire and willingness to assume marital responsibilities, and he does not have anyone in mind, he might ask his friends, family, and relatives if there is a lady that might be suitable for him among their acquaintances and relatives, and then the couple can meet with their family members. as a result, many marriages in the Muslim world were traditionally arranged marriages, though this is not a religious requirement. However, both couples can not be forced to accept an arranged marriage and if a man likes someone (with the intention of marriage) that he knows from work, neighborhood or acquaintances, etc, he shall propose to her. Islam also encourages Muslims to marry persons for whom they have special feelings and are comfortable with. Thus, Islam recommends that potential marriage partners see one another before proposing marriage. Explaining the reason for such a recommendation, Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) said: That would enhance/foster the bonding. However the prospective couple shall not meet in private, this might lead to extremely unwanted situations, as Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) said : Whenever a man is alone with a woman, Satan is the third among them? (Reported by At-Tirmidhi). At all times, Muslims should follow the commands of the Qur'an "Tell the believing men to lower their gaze (from looking at forbidden things), and protect their private parts (from illegal sexual acts, etc.). That is pure for them. “Dating” or “pacaran” is not allowed in Islam, because Islam wants its followers to keep their honor before marriage. People is not the same with animal which having sex as they see male or female animals. The reality shows us that the dating activity leads men and women to the forbidden activity, like fornication. "In conclusion, Islam lays its social structure on the basis of a permanent relationship between a man and a woman in the form of a family. Consequently, to preserve this marital relationship, it forbids all forms of temporary relationships between a man and a woman. Pre-marital relationships in Islam are not considered respectful for neither the man nor the woman, nor is it constructive for the concept or the building the family or the Islamic society.
Sunday, March 15, 2009
Word-structure and Morphemes
KATA DAN STRUKTUR KATA
Kata merupakan salah satu bagian terpenting dari bahasa. Tanpa kata, kita tidak akan mampu menyampaikan ide kita melalui bahasa. Tapi, kemudian pertanyaanya adalah, apa itu kata? Tidak seperti “phonemes” dan suku kata yang hanya sekedar elemen dari buntyi, kata, disamping mempunyai bentuk bunyi, juga memiliki makna yang terkait dengannya. Begitu juga, tidak seperti kalimat, yang dibentuk ketika dibutuhkan, kemudian hilang. Kata akan tersimpan secara tetap di dalam kamus mental seorang penutur (lexicon). Dengan kata lain, sekali seseorang mempelajari keduanya (bunyi dan makna terkaitnya) maka, dia akan mengetahui kata tersebut dan akan mengisi pembendaharaan kata dalam memorinya.
Seseorang yang tidak mengetahui bahasa inggris tidak akan mengetahui dimana satu kata harus di mulai dan di akhiri, seperti dalam ucapan “thecatsatonthemat”. Dia tidak akan tahu dimana harus memberi jarak antara kata yang satu dengan kata yang lain. Tanpa pengetahuan suatu bahasa jelas seseorang tidak akan mampu melakukan hal itu atau mengatakan berapa jumlah kata dalam ungkapan tersebut. Sebaliknya, seorang penutu bahasa inggris tidak akan menemui kesulitan untuk membagi kata per kata dalam ungkapan itu; the, cat, sat, on, the, mat.
Karena setiap kata adalah satu unit bunyi-makna, setiap kata yang disimpan dalam “kamus mental” harus disusun dengan gambaran bunyinya, yang menentukan bunyi berserta maknanya. Selain itu, setiap kata juga mempunyai gambaran informasi lainnya; apakah itu kata benda, kerja, keterangan, sifat dan lainnya, yang mana hal ini menggambarkan kategori tata bahasa atau struktur kelanya. Kalau saja kita tidak memiliki pemahaman ini dlama benak kita, maka tentu saja kita tidak akan tahu bagimana bentuk kaliamt yang benar secara tata bahasa, yang akan membedakan kata yang benar secara tata bahasa dan yang tidak.
MORFEM
Seperti suku kata dan kalimat, kata juga mempunyai strukturnya sendiri terdiri dari bagian yang lebih kecil yang disusun dan saling berkaitan berdasarkan suatu cara tertentu. Komponen yang paling penting mengenai struktu kata adalah morfem, bagian terkecil dari bahasa yang memiliki informasi mengenai makna atau fungsinya. Kata “morpheme” berasal dari bahasa Yunani “morphe” yang berarti bentuk “forms”.
Para ahli bahasa menggunakan istilah morphology untuk menyebut ilmu yang mempelajari struktur kata dan pembentukan kata beserta aturannya. Morphology juga akan memberikan gambaran kedalam tentang bagaimana suatu bahasa berfungsi, mempelajari perbedaan kategori dari kata-kata, keberadaan kata untuk berubah dan membentuk kata dengan cara yang bervariasi.
Jika fonologi mengidentifikasi satuan dasar bahasa sebagai bunyi, morfologi mengidentifikasi satuan dasar bahasa sebagai satuan gramatikal. Bagian dari kompetensi linguistik seseorang termasuk pengetahuan mengenai morfologi bahasa, yang meliputi kata, pengucapan kata tersebut, maknanya, dan bagaimana unsur-unsur tersebut digabungkan (Fromkin & Rodman, 1998:96). Morfologi mempelajari struktur internal kata-kata. Jika pada umumnya kata-kata dianggap sebagai unit terkecil dalam sintaksis, jelas bahwa dalam kebanyakan bahasa, suatu kata dapat dihubungkan dengan kata lain melalui aturan. Misalnya, penutur bahasa Inggris mengetahui kata dog, dogs, dan dog-catcher memiliki hubungan yang erat. Penutur bahasa Inggris mengetahui hubungan ini dari pengetahuan mereka mengenai aturan pembentukan kata dalam bahasa Inggris.
Aturan yang dipahami penutur mencerminkan pola-pola tertentu (atau keteraturan) mengenai bagaimana kata dibentuk dari satuan yang lebih kecil dan bagaimana satuan-satuan tersebut digunakan dalam wicara. Jadi dapat disimpulkan bahwa morfologi adalah cabang linguistik yang mempelajari pola pembentukan kata dalam bahasa, dan berusaha merumuskan aturan yang menjadi acuan pengetahuan penutur bahasa tersebut.
Dalam hubungannya dengan sintaksis, beberapa relasi gramatikal dapat diekspresikan baik secara infleksional (morfologis) atau secara sintaksis (sebagai bagian dari struktur kalimat), misalnya pada kalimat He loves books dan He is a lover of books. Apa yang di dalam suatu bahasa ditandai dengan afiks infleksional, dalam bahasa lain ditandai dengan urutan kata (word order) dan dalam bahasa yang lain lagi dengan kata fungsi (function word). Misalnya dalam bahasa Inggris, kalimat Maxim defends Victor (Maxim mengalahkan Victor) memiliki makna yang berbeda dengan kalimat Victor defends Maxim (Victor mengalahkan Maxim). Urutan kata sangat penting. Dalam bahasa Rusia, semua kalimat berikut bermakna ”Maxim defends Victor” (Maxim mengalahkan Victor):
Maksim zasčisčajet Viktora.
Maksim Viktora zasčisčajet.
Viktora Maksim zasčisčajet.
Viktora zasčisčajet Maksim.
Sufiks infleksional –a pada Viktor menunjukkan bahwa Victor adalah yang dikalahkan, bukan Maxim.
Dalam bahasa Inggris, untuk mengungkapkan makna ”masa depan” (future) dari sebuah verba kita harus menggunakan function word berupa will, misalnya pada kalimat John will come Monday. Dalam bahasa Prancis, verba untuk future tense menggunakan infleksi (Jean vient lundi ”John is coming Monday” atau Jean viendra lundi ”John will come Monday”). Demikian halnya jika bahasa Inggris memiliki penanda have dan be, bahasa Indonesia menggunakan afiksasi untuk Mengungkapkan hal yang sama, misalnya:
Dokter memeriksa saya. The doctor examines me.
Saya diperiksa dokter. I was examined by the doctor.
Selain itu, semua morfem memiliki struktur gramatikal yang dilekatkan padanya. Terkadang, makna gramatikal hanya tampak jika morfem tersebut digabungkan dengan morfem lain (seperti pada afiks yang dapat mengubah makna gramatikal). Morfem infleksional adalah morfem yang tidak memiliki makna di luar makna gramatikal, seperti penanda jamak ”s” dalam bahasa Inggris. Tetapi morfem lain memiliki pengecualian, seperti pada kata hit – hit (present – past), atau sheep – sheep (tunggal - jamak).
Dalam hal morfem, kata seperti ‘builder’ (terdiri dari 2 morfem); ‘build’ (artinya membangun) dan –er (yang menunjukan bahwa keseluruhan kata itu berfungsi sebagai kata benda yang berarti “orang yang membangun). Begitu juga dengan kata ‘houses’ adalah dibentuk dari 2 morfem; ‘house’ (yang berarti ‘tempat tinggal’) dan –s (yang berarti ‘lebih dari satu’) sehingga ‘houses’ berarti rumah-rumah. Kata ‘reopened’ terdiri dari 3 morfem. Satu bagian terkecil dari makna adalah ‘open’, bagian terkecil lainnya adalah ‘re- (yang berarti “lagi”) dan satu bagian terkecil lain yang menyatakan fungsi tata bahasa adalah –ed (menunjukkan “masa lampau”).
Namun, tidak setiap kata dalam bahasa inggris terdiri atas 2 morfem, beberapa dapat hanya terdiri dari 1 morfem, contohnya; kata ‘train’ tidak dapat dibagi dalam bagian yang lebih kecil lagi (misalnya; tr dan ain ; atau t dan rain) sehingga memiliki makna dan fungsi. Kata-kata semacam ini, disebut kata sederhana sedangkan kata-kata yang terdiri dari 2 morfem atau lebih biasa disebut dengan kata kompleks.
Satu kata dapat juga disusun dari satu morfem atau lebih;
satu morfem
Boy
Desire
dua morfem
Boy + ish
Desire + able
Tiga morfem
Boy + ish + ness
Empat morfem
Gentle + man + li + ness
Lebih dari empat morfem
Un + gentle + man + li + ness
Satu morfem dapat diwakili oleh satu bunyi, seperti morfem ‘a’ yang berarti tanpa sebagaimana dalam kata ‘amoral’ atau ‘asexual’, atau mungkin dibentuk oleh satu suku kata seperti ‘child’ dan ‘ish’ in ‘childish’. Satu morfem juga dapat terdiri atas lebih dari 2 suku kata; seperti ‘lady’ dan ‘water’, atau 3 suku kata seperti dalam kata ‘crocodile, atau empat suku kata, sebagaimana dalam ‘salamander’.
Morfem bebas dan terikat
Morfem terdiri dari 2 jenis; ada yang dinamakan morfem bebas atau morfem yang dapat berdiri sendiri sebagai sebuah kata, contoh; ‘open’ dan ‘house’, dan ada juga morfem yang dinamakan morfem terikat yang tidak dapat berdiri sendiri, namun membutuhkan atau selalu menempel pada suatu kata contoh -er, -ist, -ed, -s, (jenis morfem akan dibahas pada bab berikutnya).
ALLOMORPH
Bentuk yang berbeda dari suatu morfem disebut allomorph. Contoh allomorph dalam bahsa inggris adalah; penggunaan “an” sebelum satu kata yang dimulai dengan bunyi vocal dan “a” sebelum kata yang dimulai dengan bunyi konsonan.
An orange
An accent
A building
A car
Yang juga harus diperhatikan bahwa yang membedakan penggunaan ‘a’ dan ‘an’ adalah dari segi pengucapan kata yang diikutinya, bukan dari segi pengejaannya, jadi seperti a university atau an umbrella.
Contoh lain dari variasi allomorph didapatkan dalam penyebutan morfem jamak –s sebagaimana dalam kata-kata berikut
Cats
Dogs
Judges
Pada kata cats, morfem –s yang menyatakan jamak menjadi /s/, pada kata yang kedua menjadi /z/ dan pada kata yang ketiga menjadi /Əz/.
Namun, kasus yang lain mengenai variasi allomorph ditemukan dalam pasangan kata-kata seperti permit/ permissi-ive, include/ inclus-ive, impress/ impress-ion dan lainnya. Seperti yang akan dilihat jika kita mengucapkan kata-kata diatas dengan keras, penguacapan dari konsonan yang ada pada morfem pertama berubah pada saat satu akhiran ditambahkan.
Tidak perlu dibingungkan perubahan ejaan dengan variasi allomorph. Sebagai contoh, akhir e dalam ejaan ‘create’ dan ‘ride’ berubah menjadi ‘creat-ive’ dan rid-ing’, tapi hal semacam ini bukanlah variati allomorph karena tidak ada perubahan dalam hal pengucapan. Dengan kata lain, ada variasi allomorph di kata ‘impress/ impress-ion, dimana pengucapan morfem yang pertama berubah walaupun tidak ada perubahan pada ejaannya.
REFERENCES:
Fromkin and Rodman, 63-70
Katamba, 17-39
O’grady, 111-114
Internet
http://just-drop-by.blogspot.com/2008/09/morfologi-dasar-dasar.html
Kata merupakan salah satu bagian terpenting dari bahasa. Tanpa kata, kita tidak akan mampu menyampaikan ide kita melalui bahasa. Tapi, kemudian pertanyaanya adalah, apa itu kata? Tidak seperti “phonemes” dan suku kata yang hanya sekedar elemen dari buntyi, kata, disamping mempunyai bentuk bunyi, juga memiliki makna yang terkait dengannya. Begitu juga, tidak seperti kalimat, yang dibentuk ketika dibutuhkan, kemudian hilang. Kata akan tersimpan secara tetap di dalam kamus mental seorang penutur (lexicon). Dengan kata lain, sekali seseorang mempelajari keduanya (bunyi dan makna terkaitnya) maka, dia akan mengetahui kata tersebut dan akan mengisi pembendaharaan kata dalam memorinya.
Seseorang yang tidak mengetahui bahasa inggris tidak akan mengetahui dimana satu kata harus di mulai dan di akhiri, seperti dalam ucapan “thecatsatonthemat”. Dia tidak akan tahu dimana harus memberi jarak antara kata yang satu dengan kata yang lain. Tanpa pengetahuan suatu bahasa jelas seseorang tidak akan mampu melakukan hal itu atau mengatakan berapa jumlah kata dalam ungkapan tersebut. Sebaliknya, seorang penutu bahasa inggris tidak akan menemui kesulitan untuk membagi kata per kata dalam ungkapan itu; the, cat, sat, on, the, mat.
Karena setiap kata adalah satu unit bunyi-makna, setiap kata yang disimpan dalam “kamus mental” harus disusun dengan gambaran bunyinya, yang menentukan bunyi berserta maknanya. Selain itu, setiap kata juga mempunyai gambaran informasi lainnya; apakah itu kata benda, kerja, keterangan, sifat dan lainnya, yang mana hal ini menggambarkan kategori tata bahasa atau struktur kelanya. Kalau saja kita tidak memiliki pemahaman ini dlama benak kita, maka tentu saja kita tidak akan tahu bagimana bentuk kaliamt yang benar secara tata bahasa, yang akan membedakan kata yang benar secara tata bahasa dan yang tidak.
MORFEM
Seperti suku kata dan kalimat, kata juga mempunyai strukturnya sendiri terdiri dari bagian yang lebih kecil yang disusun dan saling berkaitan berdasarkan suatu cara tertentu. Komponen yang paling penting mengenai struktu kata adalah morfem, bagian terkecil dari bahasa yang memiliki informasi mengenai makna atau fungsinya. Kata “morpheme” berasal dari bahasa Yunani “morphe” yang berarti bentuk “forms”.
Para ahli bahasa menggunakan istilah morphology untuk menyebut ilmu yang mempelajari struktur kata dan pembentukan kata beserta aturannya. Morphology juga akan memberikan gambaran kedalam tentang bagaimana suatu bahasa berfungsi, mempelajari perbedaan kategori dari kata-kata, keberadaan kata untuk berubah dan membentuk kata dengan cara yang bervariasi.
Jika fonologi mengidentifikasi satuan dasar bahasa sebagai bunyi, morfologi mengidentifikasi satuan dasar bahasa sebagai satuan gramatikal. Bagian dari kompetensi linguistik seseorang termasuk pengetahuan mengenai morfologi bahasa, yang meliputi kata, pengucapan kata tersebut, maknanya, dan bagaimana unsur-unsur tersebut digabungkan (Fromkin & Rodman, 1998:96). Morfologi mempelajari struktur internal kata-kata. Jika pada umumnya kata-kata dianggap sebagai unit terkecil dalam sintaksis, jelas bahwa dalam kebanyakan bahasa, suatu kata dapat dihubungkan dengan kata lain melalui aturan. Misalnya, penutur bahasa Inggris mengetahui kata dog, dogs, dan dog-catcher memiliki hubungan yang erat. Penutur bahasa Inggris mengetahui hubungan ini dari pengetahuan mereka mengenai aturan pembentukan kata dalam bahasa Inggris.
Aturan yang dipahami penutur mencerminkan pola-pola tertentu (atau keteraturan) mengenai bagaimana kata dibentuk dari satuan yang lebih kecil dan bagaimana satuan-satuan tersebut digunakan dalam wicara. Jadi dapat disimpulkan bahwa morfologi adalah cabang linguistik yang mempelajari pola pembentukan kata dalam bahasa, dan berusaha merumuskan aturan yang menjadi acuan pengetahuan penutur bahasa tersebut.
Dalam hubungannya dengan sintaksis, beberapa relasi gramatikal dapat diekspresikan baik secara infleksional (morfologis) atau secara sintaksis (sebagai bagian dari struktur kalimat), misalnya pada kalimat He loves books dan He is a lover of books. Apa yang di dalam suatu bahasa ditandai dengan afiks infleksional, dalam bahasa lain ditandai dengan urutan kata (word order) dan dalam bahasa yang lain lagi dengan kata fungsi (function word). Misalnya dalam bahasa Inggris, kalimat Maxim defends Victor (Maxim mengalahkan Victor) memiliki makna yang berbeda dengan kalimat Victor defends Maxim (Victor mengalahkan Maxim). Urutan kata sangat penting. Dalam bahasa Rusia, semua kalimat berikut bermakna ”Maxim defends Victor” (Maxim mengalahkan Victor):
Maksim zasčisčajet Viktora.
Maksim Viktora zasčisčajet.
Viktora Maksim zasčisčajet.
Viktora zasčisčajet Maksim.
Sufiks infleksional –a pada Viktor menunjukkan bahwa Victor adalah yang dikalahkan, bukan Maxim.
Dalam bahasa Inggris, untuk mengungkapkan makna ”masa depan” (future) dari sebuah verba kita harus menggunakan function word berupa will, misalnya pada kalimat John will come Monday. Dalam bahasa Prancis, verba untuk future tense menggunakan infleksi (Jean vient lundi ”John is coming Monday” atau Jean viendra lundi ”John will come Monday”). Demikian halnya jika bahasa Inggris memiliki penanda have dan be, bahasa Indonesia menggunakan afiksasi untuk Mengungkapkan hal yang sama, misalnya:
Dokter memeriksa saya. The doctor examines me.
Saya diperiksa dokter. I was examined by the doctor.
Selain itu, semua morfem memiliki struktur gramatikal yang dilekatkan padanya. Terkadang, makna gramatikal hanya tampak jika morfem tersebut digabungkan dengan morfem lain (seperti pada afiks yang dapat mengubah makna gramatikal). Morfem infleksional adalah morfem yang tidak memiliki makna di luar makna gramatikal, seperti penanda jamak ”s” dalam bahasa Inggris. Tetapi morfem lain memiliki pengecualian, seperti pada kata hit – hit (present – past), atau sheep – sheep (tunggal - jamak).
Dalam hal morfem, kata seperti ‘builder’ (terdiri dari 2 morfem); ‘build’ (artinya membangun) dan –er (yang menunjukan bahwa keseluruhan kata itu berfungsi sebagai kata benda yang berarti “orang yang membangun). Begitu juga dengan kata ‘houses’ adalah dibentuk dari 2 morfem; ‘house’ (yang berarti ‘tempat tinggal’) dan –s (yang berarti ‘lebih dari satu’) sehingga ‘houses’ berarti rumah-rumah. Kata ‘reopened’ terdiri dari 3 morfem. Satu bagian terkecil dari makna adalah ‘open’, bagian terkecil lainnya adalah ‘re- (yang berarti “lagi”) dan satu bagian terkecil lain yang menyatakan fungsi tata bahasa adalah –ed (menunjukkan “masa lampau”).
Namun, tidak setiap kata dalam bahasa inggris terdiri atas 2 morfem, beberapa dapat hanya terdiri dari 1 morfem, contohnya; kata ‘train’ tidak dapat dibagi dalam bagian yang lebih kecil lagi (misalnya; tr dan ain ; atau t dan rain) sehingga memiliki makna dan fungsi. Kata-kata semacam ini, disebut kata sederhana sedangkan kata-kata yang terdiri dari 2 morfem atau lebih biasa disebut dengan kata kompleks.
Satu kata dapat juga disusun dari satu morfem atau lebih;
satu morfem
Boy
Desire
dua morfem
Boy + ish
Desire + able
Tiga morfem
Boy + ish + ness
Empat morfem
Gentle + man + li + ness
Lebih dari empat morfem
Un + gentle + man + li + ness
Satu morfem dapat diwakili oleh satu bunyi, seperti morfem ‘a’ yang berarti tanpa sebagaimana dalam kata ‘amoral’ atau ‘asexual’, atau mungkin dibentuk oleh satu suku kata seperti ‘child’ dan ‘ish’ in ‘childish’. Satu morfem juga dapat terdiri atas lebih dari 2 suku kata; seperti ‘lady’ dan ‘water’, atau 3 suku kata seperti dalam kata ‘crocodile, atau empat suku kata, sebagaimana dalam ‘salamander’.
Morfem bebas dan terikat
Morfem terdiri dari 2 jenis; ada yang dinamakan morfem bebas atau morfem yang dapat berdiri sendiri sebagai sebuah kata, contoh; ‘open’ dan ‘house’, dan ada juga morfem yang dinamakan morfem terikat yang tidak dapat berdiri sendiri, namun membutuhkan atau selalu menempel pada suatu kata contoh -er, -ist, -ed, -s, (jenis morfem akan dibahas pada bab berikutnya).
ALLOMORPH
Bentuk yang berbeda dari suatu morfem disebut allomorph. Contoh allomorph dalam bahsa inggris adalah; penggunaan “an” sebelum satu kata yang dimulai dengan bunyi vocal dan “a” sebelum kata yang dimulai dengan bunyi konsonan.
An orange
An accent
A building
A car
Yang juga harus diperhatikan bahwa yang membedakan penggunaan ‘a’ dan ‘an’ adalah dari segi pengucapan kata yang diikutinya, bukan dari segi pengejaannya, jadi seperti a university atau an umbrella.
Contoh lain dari variasi allomorph didapatkan dalam penyebutan morfem jamak –s sebagaimana dalam kata-kata berikut
Cats
Dogs
Judges
Pada kata cats, morfem –s yang menyatakan jamak menjadi /s/, pada kata yang kedua menjadi /z/ dan pada kata yang ketiga menjadi /Əz/.
Namun, kasus yang lain mengenai variasi allomorph ditemukan dalam pasangan kata-kata seperti permit/ permissi-ive, include/ inclus-ive, impress/ impress-ion dan lainnya. Seperti yang akan dilihat jika kita mengucapkan kata-kata diatas dengan keras, penguacapan dari konsonan yang ada pada morfem pertama berubah pada saat satu akhiran ditambahkan.
Tidak perlu dibingungkan perubahan ejaan dengan variasi allomorph. Sebagai contoh, akhir e dalam ejaan ‘create’ dan ‘ride’ berubah menjadi ‘creat-ive’ dan rid-ing’, tapi hal semacam ini bukanlah variati allomorph karena tidak ada perubahan dalam hal pengucapan. Dengan kata lain, ada variasi allomorph di kata ‘impress/ impress-ion, dimana pengucapan morfem yang pertama berubah walaupun tidak ada perubahan pada ejaannya.
REFERENCES:
Fromkin and Rodman, 63-70
Katamba, 17-39
O’grady, 111-114
Internet
http://just-drop-by.blogspot.com/2008/09/morfologi-dasar-dasar.html
The Relationship between Drama and Language Learning
Drama is a literary form supported by the most ancient traditions, firmly embedded in the social customs of cultures throughout the world, and well known for the excitement and enthusiasm it produces both in performers and the spectators. It is essential to remember that drama is not just the description of discussion of events from real life; it is the re-creation of real life (‘the imitation of an action’-as Aristotle defined it centuries ago), and make use of all the constituent elements of real activity. These obviously include language, but such things also as movement, position, gesture and facial expression, so it is really an imitation of the real life. This means that we are able to make use of the varied and subtle expressive resources of language, such as intonation, pitch, volume, emphasis, hesitation and so on. By performing the drama, the language students will naturally be set to learn about the target language (language to be learned). Drama is an effective way as a useful tool in learning language. Learning through drama helps students to develop four main language skills, because in drama they will perform by using all senses, as well as drama helps student to develop their proficiency in structural, semantic, discoursal and other communicative aspect. Drama provides an ideal opportunity for task-based learning in the study of language. It is a great opportunity to build students’ ability in languages such as decoding, discourse, vocabulary and syntactic knowledge. It is really great chance to use languages in application as if in the real life.
Thursday, March 5, 2009
UMMAH AND FIGHT
UMMAH is crying
When the bombs are dropping
The leaders of the countries are lying
When our generation likes dying
We lost memory of our victory
Cos, we are shy to remember our history
Don’t you know it’s the history of nobility?
So why you quiet? Let’s look back our history to reach our victory
Yes..it’s not a time to stay
You don’t need to ask why
Just join us to struggle on the true way!
Cos, you don’t know when you pass away
They say this struggle is boring
But, I say they are lying
Coz, what they can do just insulating
And I will be here to keep on fighting
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